University of Florence

            Throughout the High and Late Middle Ages universities were established in many of Europe’s leading cities such as Paris, Cambridge, and Prague. Universities were especially prevalent in Italy, and would be a point of pride for the republics or principalities they were hosted in. Florence was no exception, and in 1321 CE a Studium Generale was established in the Florentine Republic. The early university was ratified by a bull from Pope Clement VI, legitimizing and officially recognizing all titles that it conferred. In this early form, the University of Florence taught Civil and Canon Law, Literature, and Medicine, with Theology being added to the catalogue shortly after it was founded.

            Medieval universities such as the University of Florence are impactful for a number of reasons. First, they were an early example of specialized study in the arts and sciences. Departments dedicated to particular areas of study were established, and would come to be institutionalized. Second, Studium Generale was a new form of higher education, one that came to replace cathedrals and monasteries as the standard in Europe. These new schools were open to any capable student, and were not restricted to locals. The establishment of institutions such as these helps to explain the diffusion of knowledge that took place during the Late Middle Ages, and sets the stage for the Renaissance. The emphasis on universities in Italy may also help explain why so much of the early activity during the Renaissance was centered on the peninsula, especially in Florence, which is often called the birthplace of the Renaissance.

               The groundwork for our university system is an artifact of the Middle Ages. Just as we value our institutions of higher learning, so too did medieval peoples. Without an understanding of medieval universities, we have an incomplete history of our university system.

References:

Cobban, Alan, The Medieval Universities: Their Development and Organization, London: Harper & Row, 1975.

Haskins, Charles Homer. The Rise of Universities. Gordon Press, 1976.

 “History - University - Università Degli Studi Di Firenze - UniFI.” Www.unifi.it, https://www.unifi.it/vp-10280-history.html.

Images:

“Visual Gallery - University - Università Degli Studi Di Firenze - UniFI.” Www.unifi.it, https://www.unifi.it/vp-10729-visual-gallery.html.

The Cologne Cathedral

The foundation was laid for the beautiful Cologne Cathedral on August 15, 1248.

This was a special occasion for it was the celebration of the Assumption of the Virgin 

Mary. It is located in Cologne, Germany, and is known as the largest Gothic church is Northern Europe. The main feature of the cathedral is it's twin towers which stand at approximately 157 meters tall. For a long time after the completion of the cathedral, it was considered the largest structure om the world. In fact it was not until 1884 that the Washington Monument surpassed it as the world's largest structure. The stained glass windows of the cathedral were finished in the 13th century. However, when the windows were destroyed during World War II, it was not until that they were replaced(in a modern style) by Gerhard Richter. Today, the cathedral consists of over 11,000 square panels of stained glass, including 72 solid colors. The construction of Cologne Cathedral was not considered finished until 1880 due to many centuries of delays and restoration. Troops of the French Revolution actually utilized the cathedral as a stable in 1790. Before it's construction, the site of the cathedral was put to use for a Christian church. In fact the earliest traces of a Christian church go all the way back to the 4th century. The foundation was laid in 1248, however it was not until around 1265 AD that the chevet and choir aisles were built and could be used for services. The final big restorations required for the cathedral date back to 1952, in order to repair the damage caused by World War II, and to return to the world the beauty that is the Cologne Cathedral. 

   

“History of Cologne Cathedral.” History of Cologne Cathedral - Cologne Cathedral, www.colognecathedral.net/History-of-Cologne-Cathedral.html.

Lewis, Robert. “Cologne Cathedral.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 13 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/topic/Cologne-Cathedral.

The Little Hours Are Anything but Holy

The Little Hours (2017) is a raunchy comedy film by Jeff Baena that follows the tale of three monastic nuns as they struggle to live in their convent in 1347. It is based on Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, which is a fourteenth-century text that is famous for breaking the medieval norms at the time. In the film Sister Alessandra, Sister Ginevra, and Sister Fernanda all struggle with their monastic lives. When Masseto, a runaway slave, begins working as a groundskeeper at the convent, the nuns become infatuated with him. They see it as a chance to break away from their monastic restraints and enjoy life. What unfolds is a chaotic mess involving sex, witchcraft, and plenty of satire.

The film's central historical message is that all humans, even the holiest, have worldly temptations and commit sin. The film makes the audience remember that just because these women are nuns, it does not mean they do not have independent thoughts. It takes the pure image of what a nun is supposed to be and allows the audience to now see these women without their habits as normal women in society. The Little Hours does show many historical accuracies to how nuns lived in the Central Middle Ages. The first of these being how many jobs we see the Sisters do around the convent. As we discussed in class, "nuns performed tasks of needlework such as embroidering robes and textiles for use in church services" (Cartwright). Sister Alessandra is a master embroideress in the film and her works are sold at markets in town. Along with embroidery, the nuns clean the convent, work in the garden, wash clothes, read, and write illustrations in the film. It does a very good job of showing the duties that nuns had when they lived in a convent in the 12th through 14th centuries. Another important aspect of a nun's life that is portrayed in the film is their devotion to prayer. From class, we learned that nuns usually prayed about seven times a day. In the first full day that takes place in The Little Hours, the nuns pray a total of four times and go to confession once. While this is not as much as real nuns would pray every day, the film puts a good effort towards showing the nuns' devotion to pray and worship. In terms of visual accuracies, the set and costumes represent the time period well. It does not paint the Middle Ages as being a dark and muddy place as many Hollywood films have done before. The convent is in rural Northern Italy, a good distance away from any city or other civilization. Female monasteries were usually laid out in a mirror image and "The heart of the complex was still the cloister which ran around an open space" (Cartwright). The monastery in the film shows the cloister running all around the inner perimeter. The costumes in the film are fairly simple as the habits of nuns should be. Father Tommasso frequently visits the convent to lead them in service because "Unlike monks, a nun (or any woman for that matter) could not become a priest and for this reason services in a nunnery required the regular visit of a male priest" (Cartwright). 

      

                  

The concept of medievalism does not necessarily take place in the film. Baena does not rely on bringing medieval stereotypes into the film. His main tool is using satire to break down the image of what a religious order would look like at this time. By doing this some inaccuracies are implemented into the film but done so purposefully. The first of these being the Sisters' use of language throughout the film. They curse vigorously throughout the film towards not only each other but even Father Tommasso and Bishop Bartolomeo. There is a scene where the nuns steal wine from the cellar and smoke. Sister Fernanda even copies another nun's confession and takes part in a cult of witches. This all creates a hilarious experience for the audience because of the contradictions that the film creates between reality and fiction. The most influential difference that Baena brings to the film is the nuns' desire to have sex. Nuns, of course, are supposed to be virgins because "physical purity was considered the only starting point from which to reach spiritual purity" (Cartwright). While these inaccuracies bring more humor than harm. Baena takes one subtle dig at how monasteries made money and how much the church was focused on acquiring wealth. Bishop Bartolomeo comes to visit the convent but does not worry himself with how the nuns are acting. He is extremely concerned with the profit that the convent is making. Convents did make money by selling goods, donations, etc. but Baena implies the greediness of the convent to be a priority. He emphasizes the stereotype of how the Church is in control of everything and is only a business. While the Church in many ways acted as a business in the Middle Ages, Baena's portrayal is just not completely accurate.

When The Little Hours debuted it brought a massive uproar in the Catholic community. Many protests and petitions started aginst the film such as " The Catholic group America Needs Fatima recently launched an online petition opposing Jeff Baena’s comedy about three foul-mouthed, sexually liberated nuns" (Winfrey). Many Catholics saw the film as an insult to their religion and heritage. The executive director of America Need's Fatima said the film "'wrongly features priests and nuns taking part in immoral acts and using foul language'" (Winfrey). It is no surprise that the film brought lots of controversy with the immense amount of satire that Baena used. Also, the film was only released in select theaters because of its immense controversy. 

  

Overall, the film has lots of historical accuracies and inaccuracies. Could this film be used in a classroom effectively? Probably not. While the film shows good conceptions of the day to day lives of nuns in the Central Middle Ages, the satire and humor take away from the historical effects of the movie. Also, it would depend on the level of education the film was to be shown to because of some of the more "graphic" scenes throughout the movie. This film is simply based on satire of the traditional nun. Baena achieves his goal of breaking how the stereotypical nun should act but still keeps a relative medieval feel to the film. This is a film someone should watch if they are looking for a movie that does not take history so seriously. At first glance, The Little Hours appears to be an innocent family movie, however, this film is anything but holy.

                                                                             

Works Cited

Cartwright, Mark. "The Daily Life of Medieval Nuns." Ancient History Encyclopedia, 19 December 2018, https://www.ancient.eu/article/1298/the-daily-life-of-medieval-nuns/.

The Little Hours. Directed by Jeff Baena, performances by Alison Brie, Dave Franco, and Kate Micucci, Gunpowder & Sky, 2017. 

Winfrey, Graham. "'The Little Hours': Catholic Groups Slam Sundance Comedy for 'Immortal Acts'." IndieWire, 7 July 2017, https://www.indiewire.com/2017/07/the-little-hours-catholic-groups-slam-sundance-aubrey-plaza-alison-brie-1201851161/.      

Ancient Gadgets: The Astrolabe

Along with philosophy, there was a profusion of mathematical and scientific knowledge that came into
medieval Europe from the Islamic east—some of it was preserved from the ancient Greek and Roman
world (often with modification and commentary from Islamic scholars), and some was the direct
invention or discovery of the Muslim world; the astrolabe represents the former. 

Often believed to be an invention of the Greeks, from whom it gets its name meaning “star taker”, the
astrolabe was a sophisticated mathematical tool, likely existing from at least the 3rd century B.C.E.,
which was used for determining the location of the user on earth by relation to the stars. Since star
patterns change depending on location, many astrolabes came with multiple chart plates for use in
different areas. Widely used by mariners, monks, doctors, etc. the astrolabe was a symbol as well as a
tool. It became common practice for them to be displayed on walls as a signal of academic
accomplishment.

Aside from navigation, and orientation, of the most common uses for the astrolabe was astrology.
Medieval Europe did not differentiate between astronomy and astronomy—believing that if the
position of planets affected the weather than it was perfectly logical that they also affected human
health and could be used predictively. This is why astrolabes were a common tool for medical
practitioners. However, they were widely used outside of academic circles too, though far fewer
examples of simple utilitarian astrolabes survive because they were often made of perishable materials
such as wood, or melted down for scrap. Among medieval intelligentsia astrolabes were sometimes
referred to as a mathematical jewels, and often lavishly decorated with engravings as well as actual
jewels and precious stones.

The specific artifact for this post is the earliest extant European astrolabe—which has been dated
c. 1326. Notably, this is quite a few years after infamous medieval super-nerds Abelard and Heloise
named their son Astrolabe (some 200 years!), so they were a bit ahead of the crowd in Europe; this
is not surprising though, given their academic associations. I it clear that there were astrolabes in
Europe in the early 12th century, but presumably significantly few and likely more perishable. The
above artifact is made of a copper alloy. Its plates, and the saints referenced in inscriptions, indicate
that it nearly certainly comes from England. 

"The parts of an astrolabe" Whipple Museum of the History of Science, University of Cambridge 2006-16.

http://www.sites.hps.cam.ac.uk/whipple/explore/astronomy/amedievalastrolabe/thepartsofanastrolabe/

Poppick, Laura. “The Story of the Astrolabe, the Original Smartphone.” Smithsonian.com,
Smithsonian Institution, 31 Jan. 2017,
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/astrolabe-original-smartphone-180961981/.

“Mariner’s Astrolabe.” Ages of Exploration, https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/object/astrolabe/.

“Astrolabes in Medieval Jewish Society.” The Warburg Institute, 29 May 2019,
https://warburg.sas.ac.uk/research/research-projects/astrolabes-medieval-jewish-society.

“The Astrolabe: A Mathematical Jewel.” UC Geography,
https://geog.ucsb.edu/the-astrolabe-a-mathematical-jewel/.

St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, Austria

St. Stephan’s Cathedral in Vienna, Austria 

Vienna Austria is home to some of the most beautiful architecture in

 the world. Among many famous tourist sites within the city is St. Stephen’s

  Cathedral, which is easily their most visited Cathedral in the city. Located in

 the city square “Stephansplatz” this Gothic church is awe inspiring, bustling,

 and close to multiple forms of transportation. This Cathedral from the 12th 

century echoes back to Vienna’s past and reminds everyone who visits it of the

 city’s rich heritage. 

While the original stonework was laid in the 1130s and multiple doors and other

 aspects of the church still remains, various parts have had to be rebuilt, which 

is why there are many baroque features about this church added onto its original

 Gothic flare. This building has been through everything from petty vandalism to

 aerial bombings that occurred during World War 2. The church also holds the 

tomb of the emperor Frederick the 3rd.

The church was not officially a Cathedral until the 1400s, however it has always

 been an important centerpiece of the city. This church is a perfect example of Gothic

 architecture from the 12th century. The taller of the two spires reaches to 450 feet in

 the air, and is a significant feature of the Gothic style. The church is also complete with

 flying buttresses to assist in holding the weight of the heavy stones that make up the

 building. The interior is possibly more dramatic and detailed than the outside - the ceiling

 tells stories of saints and sinners, and iconography exists all over the walls for Christians

 to interpret and take in. Tall columns line the long nave, creating a stunning entry for

  all who enter. The exterior roof of the building is tiled, “featuring an intimidating double 

headed eagle that pops out in black from 230,000 tiles that make up the ceramic 

mosaic spread” (Culture Trip). In conclusion, this stunning building echos the 12th

 century Gothic style amazingly and has held this image through the ages.

Works Cited

Culture Trip. “A Brief History of Vienna's St Stephen's Cathedral.” Culture Trip, 

The Culture Trip, 4 Apr. 2017,

 theculturetrip.com/europe/austria/articles/a-brief-history-of-viennas-st-stephens-cathedral/.

Ermengem, Kristiaan Van. “Stephansdom, Vienna.” A View On Cities, www.aviewoncities.com/vienna/stephansdom.htm.

“Home.” Stephansdom – St.Stephen's Cathedral, 17 Sept. 2019,
 www.visitingvienna.com/sights/stefansdom/.

The English Whitby Abbey

A most intriguing part of medieval English history, the Whitby Abbey has been around since the early middle ages.  It may only be left as a ruin in this modern world, but it has remained with the help of several attempts to rebuild the old abbey.

Originally, Whitby Abby was built in the 600s by the Northumbrian King Oswy to honor God for granting him victory over his pagan Mercian enemy.  Lady Hilda was appointed as the abbess of this nun and monk sheltering abbey, who also happens to be the famous abbess known for her greatly sought-after wisdom and for hosting the Synod of Whitby.  The Synod of Whitby was the assembly that united England under the Roman Catholic faith that took over Europe instead of the Irish Catholic faith.  During her time as abbess, Hilda was also known to nurture poets, with the abbey also known for producing a great number of high-ranking clergy men for the church.  Unfortunately, from this period of the abbey, only a manuscript and a letter survive, with the original abbey destroyed.  The Vikings are known to have destroyed the abbey's foundation during their raids.

Later, a Benedictine monastery was built in the area around 1100, with churches and other necessary buildings built in the Romanesque style of the age.  Despite the fact there was now a functional monastery on the very same grounds, it wasn't until the 1300s that an attempt was made to rebuild the abbey.  This reconstruction, which was done on and off again into the 1500s, is the source for the Gothic style that the abbey's ruins display despite its history stretching back to the 600s.  The shell that remains shows a few elegant spires, large windows that would have been filled with stained glass, pointed arches, and less inner support besides its rows of archways, as most of the support would have come from outside of the building.  Again, very little documented proof remains from this period, with much of the dating being based on the architectural style, and a single document granting a Whitby monk permission to raise funds for the abbey's reconstruction.

Finally, in the late 1500s the land was bought by a Sir Richard Cholmley who repurposed the abbey to act as a family home.  Renovations were made that included adding a courtyard entrance and another wing, but the family abandoned the land in the 18th century, which marked the beginning of the abbey relenting to time.  Gradually, parts of the abbey collapsed, until it became the ruins familiar to modern day tourists as part of the inspiration for Bram Stoker's Dracula.  Still, it remains as a more haunting testament to the famous Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages and stands on the historical ground that saw famous individuals and events of the early Middle Ages.

References

Bennet, Judith.  Medieval Europe: A Short History.  McGraw Hill, 2011.

English Heritage, "Whitby Abby"  https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/whitby-abbey/

History Extra "Whitby Abbey, North Yorkshire"  https://www.historyextra.com/period/norman/whitby-abbey-north-yorkshire/

Medievalists.net "Before Dracula: The Rise and Fall of Whitby Abbey" https://www.medievalists.net/2018/04/before-dracula-the-rise-and-fall-of-whitby-abbey/

Magical Unicorns

Magical Unicorns 

Magical Unicorn from the Middle Ages

Not only this Magical Unicorn, but six other Unicorn Tapestries from the middle ages can be found at the Musee de Cluny museum in Europe. These Magical Unicorns have ignited the fantasy of artists as well as common people. The unicorns were considered mythical creatures living in India, they're believed to be an inspired by the rhino. Later on they are turned into a mythical beast and it says "which featured as  the incarnation in an allegory where the animal sees the maiden alias the Virgin Mary and lays its head in her lap and falls asleep." Later the allegory was extended and called a love story. The unicorn was later used on armor.

In the Middle Ages the tusks of narwhals were put forward as horns from the unicorns and were highly prized. Not only were they used for art, but they were also used as cups, as the actual horns of unicorns were believed to be poison. Until the 17th century when the myth was proven wrong by a Danish scientist, Ole Worm. 

The six tapestries were found damp, moldy, and slowly composing at the Boussac Castle in 1841.

They were later conserved and brought back to their former glory. The exhibit not only features art about the unicorns, but also modern renderings of the myths in paintings, posters, videos, and costumes.

https://www.medieval.eu/magical-unicorns-at-musee-de-cluny/

St. Bernard of Clairvaux and the Cistercian Movement

 St. Bernard of Clairvaux played a key role in the growth of the Cistercian movement of the Middle Ages. The movement was born from Robert of Molesme who had become dissatisfied with the way that monks were living. He wanted to stray from worldy affairs, which then became the goal of the Cistercian monks. Though it was not as strict and demanding as the Carthusian way of life, it still proved to be limited and rigid. For example, houses were poorly heated, speaking was not permitted, and diets only consisted of black bread, water and some stewed vegetables (Bennett). The focus of the movement was on compassionately reaching others, and according to Bennett, this often happened to be peasants, and some illiterate peasants.

The rapid growth of the Cistercian movement can be attributed to St. Bernard of Clairvaux, as he was a charismatic and eloquent speaker, who challenged Peter Abelard's initiative to combine the thoughts of the Catholic Church with that of human reason. Bernard was not interested in rationalism, or philosophy, rather he "advocated pure faith and simple love" (Bennett).
Though he was devout in his practice, his popularity moved to keep him involved in secular and worldly affairs. Due to his diplomacy and image, the Cistercian movement itself became much more relaxed in the way it dealt with the outside world. Economic gains and colonizing gave way to a more progressive form of the Cistercians. In the end, the isolationist type of movement proved to be temporary, although the movement was incredibly impactful.

Bennet, Judith M. Medieval Europe: A Short History. 11th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2011.
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Amiens Cathedral

Amiens Cathedral is located in Amiens France, and is the largest Gothic structure in France. The site Amiens where the Cathedral is located, first had several sanctuaries on it. However they were all destroyed by fire during the Norman invasion in 1019, and then again in 1107. A Romanesque church was then built in there place in 1152. In 1206 the skull of John the Baptist was brought to the church. The skull attracted many people to the church. Most of whom were the blind, mute, deaf, and suffering from epilepsy (St. Johns Disease). The church was having trouble supporting and housing all of these people. However, in 1218 the church was destroyed by a lightening strike. The Bishop at the time, Evrard de Fouilloy, decided to take the opportunity to build a bigger cathedral.

The construction of Amiens Cathedral began in 1220. The plans for the Cathedral were so big that they had to expand the walls of the town, and a few smaller buildings were destroyed to make room. The Cathedral is 145 meters long and 70 meters wide. In the beginning of the construction process, progress was very fast paced. The project was receiving many donations.At the time the town of Amiens was in goof economic wealth.They had good trades going in and out of the town. In 1222 the Architect and Bishop Fouilloy both died, however the construction of the Cathedral continued. In 1240 the construction began to slow down, because they were running low on funds. the progress was slow, and they went through a couple of bishops. In 1249 the bishop at the time ,Bishop Arnoult, was buried  in the ambulatory of the Cathedral. The construction of Amiens Cathedral lasted from 1220-1288. The Cathedral was built in a very short time, and has a unique construction style. There was further construction to the cathedral throughout history, adding a few small thing here and there. However the main Cathedral was built from 1220-1288.

The Amiens Cathedral was built in a Gothic style. The front of the Cathedral has 3 doors, with arches over them. There is one big arch in the middle with two small arches,one on each side. However, the arches have a greater significance than just style. The left arch represents the saints, the right arch represents the virgin Mary, and the middle arch represents Christ. The Cathedral has several pointed arches and statues all over the building. There is also a row of statues on the building called the kings gallery. Another important part of the architecture is the qua trefoils. the qua trefoils show life choices such as courage and cowardice. On the inside of the Cathedral the architecture is just as important. When you walk in you can see huge biblical murals on the walls. And all over the Cathedral there are stained glass windows called clerestories. An important part of the building is the labyrinth. The labyrinth has three names carved on it. the three names of the architects, Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and Renaud de Cormont, which shows their importance.

The Amiens Cathedral is a beautiful example of a Gothic Cathedral. The way it was designed and the history behind it is amazing. Every detail put into designing this had a purpose. This Cathedral shows how people thought ,worked,and what their values and beliefs were during this time.

Works Cited

Pierre, French Moments, https://frenchmoments.eu/amiens-cathedral/

Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "Amiens Cathedral," in Smarthistory, May 4, 2017, accessed October 29, 2019, https://smarthistory.org/amiens/