The Return of Martin Guerre: Love and Agency in 16th Century France

In 1548 Martin Guerre, a disgruntled, well-off peasant in the rural reaches of Languedoc, France, fled his village of Artigat, leaving his wife, son, and property behind without a trace. Eight years later, Guerre suddenly returns a new man -- loving, charismatic, and vigorous. Bertrande de Rols, once the subject of Guerre's frequent scorn and disregard, finds herself in marital bliss as her recently-returned husband treats her with previously unfounded respect and dignity -- though not all is how it seems. Three years after his return, a rumor begins to spread: Martin Guerre is an impostor. Championed by his uncle Pierre, these rumors claim that Arnaud du Tihl, also known as Pansette, stole the identity of the real Martin Guerre. High jinks ensue, ultimately leading a climactic trial during which the real Martin Guerre, now missing a leg from the Hundred Years' War, arrives to reclaim his name. Oddly enough, this film is based on the legal records of Jean de Coras, a member of the Toulouse Parliament and judge on Guerre's historical case.

Daniel Vigne's Le Retour de Martin Guerre (1982) is a suspenseful film rooted in the daily life of society's most forgotten people: the peasants. The film features neither a grandiose battle of heroic chivalry nor a classic tale of good versus evil; instead, it's an intimate showing of love and identity in the Middle Ages. Much to the film's credit, production overseen by acclaimed historian Natalie Zemon Davis who ensured, at the very least, the semblance of historical accuracy. Davis left the film unsatisfied with Vigne's dedication to history, writing The Return of Martin Guerre as proper analysis of the legal records, though her influence was not wholly lost on the film. 

Peasant Wedding (1567)

The film begins in a modest church of stone, lit only by candlelight, and lacking the comfort of pews. In the church commences the marriage of Martin and Bertrande -- a rather solemn ceremony marked by its presumably arranged nature, evidenced by the age of the bride and groom (around 14) and the extensive dowry cited after the marriage. Bertrande's dowry included money, a vineyard, a bed with a linen cloth and feathered pillows, and other such valuables -- each evidence of a society with a pseudo-middle class, even in rural areas, and not one of absolute poverty for those not of noble birth. After the ceremony, a celebration, quite similar to Pieter Bruegel's Peasant Wedding, began. Men clad in coifs and women in headdresses enjoyed the festivals of marriage: drinking, playing, and eating together in the home of the Guerre patriarch. Here begins one of the great discrepancy with history found in Martin Guerre, the omission of the Basque culture. Martin and his family immigrated to Artigat from the Basque County between France and Spain -- a land with unique social customs sacrificed in the film. One such custom, which was included in the film, involves the eldest male, the only heir under the Basque tradition, and his wife living in the same home as his father. While the inclusion of such a detail is great, the failure to contextualize the custom ignores the nuances of culture and muddles historical truth, as the Basque tradition now appears standard. 

One of the film's more striking sequences features a balance of pagan and Christian culture. Martin and Bertrande, bewitched by Martin's impotence, become the subjects of humiliation after their failure to consummate the marriage. Witchcraft is believed to be the source of their troubles, as Bertrande believes a sorceress jealous of the Guerre and Rols alliance to be behind the plot of their social demise. Seeking a cure, the couple tries various methods, with the most absurd being the pagan charivari. Dressed in the pelt of a bear, Martin is chased through the village by men clad in pine and women's clothes, beating sticks, ringing bells, and flailing tools. It is a humiliating ordeal, only furthered by Martin's capture in which the bear's false testicles are removed in a symbol jab at Martin's impotence. This spectacle is rooted in pagan tradition as a means to scare off evil spirits from newlyweds by using rough or loud noises, and though it may not have succeeded, the charivari demonstrates the more amusing aspects of medieval life often forgotten by the public. 

In addition to the charivari, Martin and Bertrande meet with a village elder to seek a cure. The tradition of consulting a local wise woman was prevalent in the region of Artigat, and although she did not cure the couple, she instructed that four masses must be held to help consummate the marriage. Shortly thereafter, Bertrande was pregnant, though not without a long journey through regional, pagan, and Christian traditions. With the help of Davis, Vigne guides the audience through a culture not entirely under a Christian hegemony; rather, the audience is presented a nuanced society with variant foundations. 

Le Retour de Martin Guerre trades the sprawling battlefields of historical epics for the intimate confines of the medieval village. Under the guidance of Davis, the film features an accurate representation of daily life. The village center is bustling with simple trade as children play in the streets; peasant laborers of all ages and genders toil in the fields, swinging fails and tilling the fields with plows; and life is marked by familial obligations and lineage. Despite all the traits of an authentic medieval society, Martin Guerre diverges from traditional storytelling, presenting Arnaud and Bertrande as co-conspirators. Although ambiguous in the film, the idea of Bertrande being complicit in Arnaud's identity theft was proposed by Davis herself, citing the rising tide of Protestantism in rural France -- a detail omitted in the film -- as support. The film's lack of Protestant themes is ultimately a hindrance, as it removes a fundamental principle by which many of the characters historically operated. 

While not without its issues, Le Retour de Martin Guerre is a well-crafted journey into the nuanced identity of a medieval peasant. If you enjoy tales of suspense, love, and courtroom drama, this is an enjoyable film which proves that the truth can be stranger than fiction.

Works Cited:

Davis, Natalie Zemon. The Return of Martin Guerre. Harvard University Press, 1983.
Vigne, Daniel, director. Le Retour de Martin Guerre. European International, 1982.

 

The Seventh Seal: Disease, Religion, and Fear

Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal is regarded as one of the most iconic movies of all time. Released in 1957, it is filmed in black-and-white and follows the story of Antonius Block, a Swedish Crusader who returns to Europe in the throes of the Great Plague. Death follows him - quite literally - and to keep his life, Block must win a chess match against him.

The Crusades ended decades before the plague hit Europe in 1347, concluding in the eleventh century. Block's role as a crusading knight ties together two well-known themes of the medieval period, providing an easily understandable storytelling method if one that is not entirely accurate.

Toward the beginning, two people have a conversation in a church. One is painting the walls and the other a commission of Block's squire, Jons. The artists talk about the wall painting and the effects of the plague on society. It is clear that the disease is causing shockwaves, and the artist reveals that he is painting the danse macabre, which becomes a crucial element as the story progresses.

All in all, the movie showed very little of the plague itself. Toward the end of the film, a plague victim stumbles toward the group, begging for water. Jons stops the mute girl from giving him any from their canteen, telling her again and again that "it's useless." The victim dies a few moments later, but not before screaming at them, "do I not deserve compassion?" This scene shows the plague as vicious, striking quickly and killing fast. Bennett quotes a chronicle from Siena as "father abandoned child; wife, husband... no one could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship." Bergman captures the terror of the plague much in the way that those who lived through it did.

Perhaps one of the most striking scenes is that of the flagellants and monks holding a procession through the town after a performance by the characters of the fools. Although flagellants existed as a response to the Black Death, they were frowned upon by most of society and were not condoned by the rest of the church. It was more common for the church to host processions of their officials and encourage citizens to pray and attend services more frequently. A priest delivers a message that frightens the crowd as well: they are all destined to die for the sins that brought about the plague. Belief that the disease was divine punishment from God was very real among common people and chroniclers alike.

The movie concludes with Death leading the characters in the danse macabre across the open hills as the fool and his family escape. Characters at the beginning painted the same scene on the walls of a castle, leaving the scene with the dual purpose of bringing the story full-circle and alluding to the infamous artistic motif of the late Middle Ages. The dance is part of memento mori; the mindset that everyone dies in the end. People in the Middle Ages were frightened of death but found solace in that they would be reunited with God once they passed. The characters themselves represent various figures in the danse - the fool, the knight, the maid, etc. In the end, Block was foolish to try and outsmart Death.

Much like the Middle Ages, the 1950s were a time of turmoil. Bergman created Seal barely a decade past the end of World War II when the world grappled with the effects and recovery. Block's monologues on his doubts about religion and his desperation to believe in God for fear of what will happen to him if he does not reflect less of the thirteenth century's memento mori and more of contemporary confliction in a war-torn era.

If you have spare time, I highly recommend The Seventh Seal. It holds fairly close to medieval customs and ideas about the Black Death and guards its title as a classic jealously. If you're less keen on the historical aspects, Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey delivers even more board games with Death (and fewer Swedish subtitles).

Works Cited

Bennett, Judith. Medieval Europe. New York, 2011.

Aberth, John. From the Brink of the Apocalypse. Routledge, 2001.

Strata Florida Abbey; The Valley of Flowers

In the rural part of Central Wales, near the small village of Pontrhydfendigaid (no clue on how to pronounce this) lies the ruins of an medieval church. In English the Abbey was known by the name "Strata Florida", in welsh it was called Ystrad Fflw or the Valley of Flowers. Despite its name a long history of violence marred this location and defiled the sacred purpose of the Abbey. Although it is unassuming at first glance the ruins of this Cistercian Abbey mark the spot where enormous changes and upheavals happened in British History not limited to the Glyndŵr rising and the chaos of the Protestant Reformation.

Strata Florida was founded by Cistercian Monks in the year 1164 CE, the Abbey's chapel was consecrated much later in the year 1204. The Cistercian Monks at Strata Florida eventually became quite wealthy and influential Ystrad Fflw had arguably become the cultural center of medieval Wales. Among the great works that were produced here were the Brut y Tywysogion (one of the first chronicles of Welsh History written in the Welsh Language) and the ballad of Mabinogion. One of the foremost poets of the middle ages, Dafydd ap Gwilym was known to have lived and compiled his works inside Strata Florida. Strata Florida was so important in the political and cultural spheres of Wales that the Welsh princes, including the famous Llywelyn the Great often held council there to decide the major political issues of the day.

Unfortunately the prosperity and influence of the Cistercian Monastery began to decline following the English conquest of Wales in 1277 CE. Perhaps this is representative of the decline of Welsh culture in general, the confiscation of Welsh lands under English nobles styled "Marcher-Lords" marks the beginning of the gradual Anglicization of Wales. This period marks the beginning of the troubles that the Cistercian Monks of Strata Florida faced during the tail-end of the Middle Ages.

                                                   A 16th century portrait of Henry IV

During the Welsh war of Independence the problems faced by the Abbey grew worse. In 1401 the English King Henry IV and his son lead an army in pillaging Strata Florida, after the monks there were found to be sympathetic to the Welsh rebel leader, Owain Glyndŵr. Following this incident the monks were expelled from the Abbey. Strata Florida was used as an English military base for the remainder of the war. In 1415 following English victory in the Glyndŵr rising the Abbey was returned to the Cistercian Order, though the monks would never truly recover from the devastation incurred upon them during the conflict.

                                                                        Henry VIII


The protestant reformation and the rise of Anglicanism in England would mark the final death of Strata Florida. In the 1540's Henry VIII the founder of Anglicanism assumed direct control over religion in England. As a consequence of this many monasteries including Strata Florida Abbey were plundered and destroyed by English Soldiers, often being converted into manor houses for use of the nobility.

                                                                         Sources: 

        http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/waleshistory/2012/07/strata_florida_abbey.html
        
        http://strataflorida.org.uk/

        https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofWales/The-English-conquest-of-Wales/

                                                                    

Are You Worth Your Salt?

In Roman times, salt was highly prized and if one was said to be not "worth their salt," it was considered a high insult. It is also regarded as the first traded commodity (Salt Assocation). Salt was no less valuable in the Middle Ages and contributed to status as well as food preservation.

The mineral was not mined, but obtained through evaporating brine and seawater. Lead salt pans were used for this purpose but would be replaced with iron versions in the eighteenth century. Originally designed in the Roman era, salt pans of the Middle Ages were slightly smaller than the Classical standard and did not have any inscriptions or embellishment on them. Pans were left in the sun and would leave behind salt as the water evaporated. There was money to be made in salt production and "wiches" - saltworks - sprung up throughout England to get into the industry.


Domesday Book records of the salt industry in England are more in-depth than those of any other type of production, demonstrating just how valuable it was (Hull). Worcestershire and Cheshire were two of the largest saltworks cities, followed by Sussex on the southern coast. Middlewich, Nantwich, and Northwich were the major saltworks of Cheshire. Salt was a local affair and the cost of importing it to other cities was great. London later formed its Fraternity of Salters to produce it themselves as only the wealthy could afford it when brought in from other towns.

These saltworks received support from the king and in return were to pay shares of their product to him. Droitwich, a saltworks in Worcestershire, had 300 measures of salt paid to the king by three salt-workers according to the Domesday account. Henry II's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine also opened trade between England and France, providing a new market for Biscay salt from the Continent, although it probably did little to reduce the prices attached to it.

The famine that struck Europe in 1315 saw the amount of salt available to the population drop because of a reduced amount of sunlight. Intense rain decreased crop populations and blotted out the sun, making it difficult to dry out salt from seawater. As availability decreased, it made it harder to preserve meats which resulted in even greater food shortage.






Works Cited

"Lead Salt Pans." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/roman-times/lead-salt-pans/.

"Life in Towns and Villages." National Archives. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/world-of-domesday/towns.htm.

Newman, Paul. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland and Company, 2001.

"Roman Times." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/roman-times/.

"Normans and Late Medieval." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/normans-late-medieval/.

"Salt-works." Hull Domesday Project. http://www.domesdaybook.net/domesday-book/structure-of-domesday-book/salt-works.

"Using Salt in the Middle Ages." Medievalists.net. http://www.medievalists.net/2016/01/using-salt-in-the-middle-ages/.

Architecture Tools

Many different tools were used in the building and architecture of the 12th century. A compass, not the navigational kind, is an instrument that is used to make a perfect circle. A compass is depicted in the manuscript illustration. In this manuscript illustration God as Architect, it depicts God holding the world and using a compass. It is believed that it was invented by Perdix, nephew of Daedalas who was a famous craftsman. The first version was attaching a string to a peg. It is believed that it was used by the Egyptians and was later seen in the Roman times as it was upgraded. In medieval times it was converted into a legged compass before it became more like the traditional one used today. Siena Cathedral is a great example of where it has been used, in making the large central mosaic, top of arches, and the dome.

Siena Cathedral

Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, God 13th century

The square was used to ensure that everything was at a right angle or 90 degrees. It was also used in measuring to make sure materials were the right size by all dimensions. With building higher and higher it needs to be measured to keep the building straight and from falling over from being unbalanced. The square first came about in the Egyptian times which is known because it was found in one of the royal tombs. Even later the Greeks and Roman were shown to have used this tool. This would later form the modern-day right triangle, even though squares are still used as well. In the Herrad von Landsberg, Horus Delicaram shows how the square is being used as the building is being built up.

Herrad von Landsberg, Hortus Deliciarum 12th century

Work Cited:

God as Architect/Builder/Geometer/Craftsman ( Österreichische Nationalbibliothek): Art in the Christian Tradition, diglib.library.vanderbilt.edu/act-imagelink.pl?RC=55539.

“Just Fun Facts.” Fun and Interesting Site, 1 July 1969, justfunfacts.com/interesting-facts-about-siena-cathedral/.

L. R. Shelby. “Medieval Masons' Tools. II. Compass and Square.” Jstor, 1965, www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3101076.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Ae19cc2c4292061ca098dd0100454ff9f.

SCHOFIELD , JOHN. “The Construction of Medieval and Tudor Houses in London .” Arct, 1991, www.arct.cam.ac.uk/Downloads/chs/vol7/article1.pdf.

Castles Seen in Monty Python And The Holy Grail

      In the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail we see many different castle locations that the knights visit in their journeys. However, only a couple castles were actually used in the filming of the movie. The two castles that were used were Doune Castle and Castle Stalker. Because of this they had to get a bit creative during filming to create the illusion of multiple locations. Most of the movie was shot in the highlands of Scotland.

     Pictured above is the Doune Castle. This Castle was originally built in the 13th century. Many of the scenes in the film that took place in a castle were shot at this location. For example the scene inside Camelot that portrayed the knights drinking and partying was done here. The use of tight shots was employed to maintain the illusion of various castle locations.

The other castle used was the Castle Stalker. This was only used in the final scene of the film, known as "The castle of Aaarrgghh." Castle Stalker, just like the rest of the film locations is located in Scotland. This Castle was originally built in 1320 as a small fort. Nowadays Castle Stalker is a great tour spot in Scotland.

Sources

http://www.movie-locations.com/movies/m/Monty-Python-And-The-Holy-Grail.php

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doune_Castle

http://www.castlestalker.com

Lady and the Unicorn

For sharp eyed viewers of the Harry Potter movies, you might notice that the walls of the Gryffindor common room are covered in a bright red tapestry prominently featuring several women, and unicorns. what viewers may not know, is that it is based on a real set of tapestries from around 1500 called "the Lady and the Unicorn"
The family that commissioned it were from Lyon, France it is not known who exactly designed it, yet it is considered by some to be the Mona Lisa of the medieval era, because of it's complexity and beauty. It consists of 6 panels, each representing the five senses, Taste, Touch, Sight, Sound, Scent, and the sixth sense Desire.
It features many aspects of medieval mythology and symbolism, such as the unicorn, which may have represented courtly love. as well as s Fox, Rabbit, Genet, falcon and Heron which represent nobility, (just to name a few.)
The panels were only recovered in 1814 in Boussac Castle in Creuse and became position of the French Government in 1882

Works Cited
- Delaney, Brigid. “Lady and the Unicorn: Mona Lisa of the Middle Ages Weaves a New Spell.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 13 Feb. 2018, www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/feb/13/lady-and-the-unicorn-mona-lisa-of-the-middle-ages-weaves-a-new-spell. 
“- The ‘Mona Lisa’ of Medieval Art.” Medievalists.net, 14 Apr. 2018, www.medievalists.net/2017/04/mona-lisa-medieval-art/.

A Crusader Hospital

Although the Knights Templar is the most recognized type of knight to exist during the Crusades, they are far from being the only type. The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, or the Knights Hospitaller, was a military order whose primary focus was to care for the sick and injured pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land.

In the heart of Jerusalem resides the remnants of a 1,000-year-old hospital building that was constructed by the Knights Hospitaller. The building collapsed in the earthquake of 1457 and was discovered in 2013—13 years after excavation began.  

Spead out over an area of 150,000 square feet, the building's setup is very similar to that of a modern hospital. Wings that were once organized according to medical condition branch off into smaller hallways and patient rooms. The Great Hall areas are characterized by massive pillars and 20-foot ceilings.

The facility is said to have also doubled as an orphanage. In many cases, newborn babies would be dropped off; if a mother had twins, she would deliver one of them to the orphanage. These orphans were very well cared for and raised to become a part of the military order once they were of age.



Works Cited

• http://www.jewishpost.com/culture/1000-Year-Old-Crusader-Hospital-Building.html
• https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/1000-year-old-crusader-hospital-unveiled-jerusalem-00724

Bringing Back the Bayeux Tapestry: One Stitch at a Time

Close up of stitching, c. 1070

Only a few years after William the Conqueror's conquest of England in 1066, the famous Battle of Hastings was commemorated in the Bayeux Tapestry. Historians date this piece as completed in 1070 CE, only six years after the Battle of Hastings. Since it's creation, all 75 panels have been a source of awe. The stitchwork itself shows incredible detail in order to tell an incredible story. Notably, the Bayeux Tapestry is not a true tapestry because the images were stitched onto the linen, not into the linen itself. Regardless of the "tapestry-ness" of the piece, the craftsmanship of the Bayeux Tapestry is amazing.

In recent times, people across the world have tried to make copies of the original tapestry, from a scrolling recreating on paper to quilted reimaginings of the original story, each new rendition maintains the grandeur of the original.

One of the most widely distributed recreations is on mica-coated paper which allows for the impersonation of stitches. The paper itself is about 43 meters (about 141 feet) and encased in a table with a glass top to enable viewing. Printed and produced by The Folio Society in England, their hope in making all 480 recreations is that they would be put in libraries and schools to encourage a closeness of English history to the modern day.

Bayeux Tapestry by Annette Banks, William is crowned King of England

Another recreation of the Bayeux Tapestry exists in a very colorful and quilted form, done by Annette Banks in the early 2000s. Banks was diagnosed with hyperactivity and Cushing's Syndrome, which stunted her life expectancy. However, with a passion for English history and a talent in sewing and stitching, Banks was encouraged by her father to recreate the famous tapestry. Her final work was around 51 feet long and much brighter than the original. Pictured to the right is Banks' recreation of the Bayeux Tapestry.








References:

Beardsley, Eleanor. “Reviving the Rich Legacy of the Bayeux Tapestry.” NPR, NPR, 26 Dec. 2005, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5069696.

Gladstone, Richard. “Recreation of Famous Bayeux Tapestry.” News, Rye & Battle Observer, 2 June 2017, www.ryeandbattleobserver.co.uk/news/recreation-of-famous-bayeux-tapestry-1-7990381.

Shearing, Sue. “Woman Recreates Bayeux Tapestry in 20 Year Bid to Beat Hyperactivity.” Daily Mail Online, Associated Newspapers, 29 Nov. 2006, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-419494/Woman-recreates-Bayeux-tapestry-20-year-bid-beat-hyperactivity.html.

Tanton, Kristine. “The Bayeux Tapestry.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2018, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/medieval-europe-islamic-world/a/bayeux-tapestry.

The Tomb of William the Conqueror

William the Conqueror had a complicated life when it came to love. In 1051, Pope Leo IX disapproved of his marriage to Matilda of Flanders. It is theorized that this was because of their "excessively close kinship" as fifth cousins, or second marriages of Matilda's parents that would invalidate her heritage. Leo's successor, Nicholas II, pardoned their marriage as long as they built two abbeys and four hospitals. Matilda commissioned the Abbey of Sainte-Trinité, and William Saint-Etienne.


The Abbey of Saint-Etienne, also known as the Mens' Abbey or Abbaye aux Hommes, was founded in 1063 and consecrated in 1077. Its structure served as the model for Norman abbeys in England. The exterior is Romanesque and spans three levels, with two symmetric towers marking the original point of entry.

William was buried in the choir of the abbey in 1087. A little beloved ruler, his body was held in Rouen, France, for three weeks before it was transported to its resting place at Caen. The corpse was bloated from heat and the king's late gluttony and burst when it was lowered into the grave. The grave marker, placed in the nineteenth century, is written in Latin and reads, "Here lies the invincible William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy and King of England, founder of this edifice, deceased in 1087."

The original monastery was destroyed in religious wars of 1562 and 1563, though the church still stands with its eleventh century architecture. The choir was remodeled in the fifteenth century in the Gothic style. Because the tomb was opened and vandalised several times, all that remains of William the Conqueror is a thigh bone.

Works Cited

"The Men's Abbey." The Epic Adventure: In the Footsteps of William the Conqueror. Calvados Tourist Board, 2018.  http://william-the-conqueror.co.uk/the-mens-abbey/.

Serena, Katie. "Gross! William the Conqueror's Body Exploded on People at His Funeral." All That's Interesting, 1 December 2017. Updated 13 July 2018. https://allthatsinteresting.com/william-the-conqueror.

Douglas, David C. "William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England," Appendix C. University of California Press, 1967. Retrieved from Erenow.com. https://erenow.com/biographies/william-the-conqueror-the-norman-impact-upon-england/21.html.

Doom's Day: How a Census Bolstered Royal Power

After the defeat of King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror's reign over the kingdom of England was one of peace and serenity... right? Not exactly. In 1085, nineteen years after William's own invasion, the Danes were at his door. To better prepare for the Danish attack, William commissioned the Domesday Book -- an early census containing information on the resources and taxable items held by all the manors in England.

The Domesday Book stands as a testament to the significant expansion of the royal administration, and bears evidence to William's consolidation of royal authority. The record allowed William to see which lord owned what, how much it was worth, and how much each lord owed him in taxes and military services. By recording such details, William was able to recover his royal rights and maximize revenues and military conscription. Moreover, it eliminated any dissent as the names of the King's barons and churchmen who held lands were also record, thus any attempts to dispute a tax demand where rendered fruitless.

It appears not much as changed, as the people of England, much like some people of today, were not the biggest fans of taxes, hence "Domesday Book." Once called the Winchester or King's Roll, the Domesday Book was granted its current title from the Dialogus de Sacarrio -- a book written about the exchequer in c.1176. With "Domesday" sounding quite similar to "Dooms Day," it is often believed that the title is a metaphor for the day of judgement because, much like the judgement of your soul, its records and decisions were final. 

Words Cited:

Bennet, Judith M. Medieval Europe: A Short History. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill.

National Archives. “Domesday Book - Survey and Making of Domesday.” The National Archives,    The National Archives, 26 Apr. 2017, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/discover-domesday/making-of-domesday.htm.

National Archives. “Discover Domesday.” The National Archives, The National Archives, 26 Apr. 2017, www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/discover-domesday/.

The Unique Find from Silacwine

William the Conqueror (or as known by some as William the Bastard) is mostly remembered as being the first Norman King of England. Although distantly related to King Edward the Confessor (reigning from 1042-1066), he still had a legitimate claim to the throne--and succeeded in taking the crown. He ruled from 1066 until his death in 1087, establishing an aristocratic regime and erecting numerous castles throughout the land, strengthening royal power. He helped transform England into what it is today and is an important figure in the history of the Middle Ages--even being depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry with his half-brothers.

Just recently, in 2011, a hammered silver coin was found in England. This find was actually a unique silver penny of William himself dated from around 1077 to 1080. Engraved into the face of the coin are the words "PILLELM X" translating to "William the King" along with his face. On the reverse side is a cross pattée and the words, "[S]ILIACPINC ON GLI" translating to "Silacwine of Gloucester", the name of the moneyer. This amazing discovery was the first and only example of coins minted in Gloucester in that time period and that "the discovery of this coin therefore proves that the mint was in operation throughout the whole reign of William I" ('Unique'). During his reign, William the Conqueror had at least 70 mints producing coins. 
History is once again proven to be fascinating when artifacts like this one are discovered. There are many missing pieces, but when one puzzle gets solved, the picture always turns out to be worth it.










Works Cited:

Bennett, Judith M. Medieval Europe: A Short History. McGraw-Hill, 2011.

'Unique' 11th Century coin discovered near Gloucester

Unique William the Conqueror silver penny found

Regal Runes: A history of the Germanic and Norse alphabets

                                    The earliest accepted example of Germanic runic writing is the inscription found on the Meldorf Brooch (dated to around 50 CE in northern Germany). It possibly reads "Hiwi" meaning spouse or husband. I theorize that this might have been a wedding gift or a "bride price" of sorts or perhaps a good luck charm/talisman for al  newlywed couple.

The ancient Germanic Tribes and their Norse cousins who followed their example centuries later are unfairly characterized as barbaric, ignorant, and illiterate. This couldn't be any more untrue than it already is. For quite some time the peoples of Germania and Scandinavia had knowledge of a functional alphabet long before the introduction of Christianity into Northern and Central Europe. While in its early stages it wasn't as sophisticated or as legible as the Roman and Greek alphabets the development of the "Futhark" script was still a significant cultural achievement (besides the Celts, the Norse and the Germanic Peoples were the only "Barbarian" group to develop their own writing system independent of Christian missionary activity).

This is the Negau helmet which was found in Slovenia and was dated to 400BCE . This is the earliest example of the Germanic language being put in writing. It reads "harikastiteiva" it is generally read as Harigast the priest. The helmet itself dates back to 400 BCE but the inscription itself was most likely added around 200 BCE.

The First example of a Germanic language being written down is inscribed on the Negau helmet. It is written in the Etruscan Alphabet which Germanic Runes likely evolved from. There are artifacts of a similar type scattered throughout the Alpine Region (the ancient contact zone between the Celtic, Italic, and Germanic peoples) and it shows how quickly the Germanic tribes were able to appropriate a foreign script and adapt it for their own purposes. As runes became a uniquely Germanic alphabet they became to be used in a uniquely Germanic/Norse context. They were associated with magic, strength, and wisdom, and they are often connected to Wotan(Odin). Runic inscriptions of this type are often found on spearheads and jewelry.
A golden disk found in Funen Denmark the inscription reads:
"houaz laþu aaduaaaliia a" 
The term houaz is a cognate with Norse
hávi meaning Odin 

 The runic alphabet did not disappear following the romanization and Christianization of Germany. The Norse and for a time the Anglo Saxons, themselves Germanic peoples continued to make use of runes creating beautiful works of art and stunning rune stones. 

 In conclusion despite their depiction in popular culture the Germanic peoples and the Scandinavians actually have a literary and material culture dating back 200 years before the year zero and all the way into the middle ages! As people today often view Europe as a monolithic cultural block of sameness I believe that it is important to look back on the values and talent of the ancient and medieval cultures for inspiration. After all we will all lose a great part of our global heritage by ignoring this extraordinary cultural history that has been intentionally written in stone for the benefit of future generations.

works cited:
 National Museum of Denmark

Norse Mythology For Smart People

Revolvy

The Development of Old Germanic Alphabets  

Talisman of Charlemagne

As we are learning about Charlemagne I was very interested in some of the artifacts that came around this time, but one that I found is so elegant, the piece is called Talisman of Charlemagne. This piece is a huge necklace sapphire encrusted with pure gold and precious gems. It was also said to be named The Talisman of Charlemagne, because supposedly in 800 Charlemagne was Crowed the Holy Roman Emperor of all of Europe all because he chased the Lombard’s out of Europe, one year after his crowning according to L’Ecole School of Jewelry Arts the piece was made and given to Charlemagne by either the Harun al Rashid or Queen Irene of Constantinople.

After Charlemagne had received the Talisman of Charlemagne it was said by many historians that he had worn it, in battle and he was buried with it, but because he had been unburied so many times the Talisman was taken out of his grave and given to Josephine de Beauharnais, she held on to it for the rest of her live until; She then leaves it to her daughter who love Talismans very much, she even made them to give to people, so on it made it way to Empress Eugenie. When Empress Eugenie was later confronted to return it to Aix-la- Chapelle, but because of I believe World War I she Changes her mind and gives it to the Cathedral of Lies you can actually go see it today.  

Real live picture of Talisman of Charlemagne

Works Cited

Students of Occult History, Los Angeles. “The Talisman of Charlemagne.” Students of Occult History, www.studentsocculthistory.com/talisman-of-charlemagne.html

Joailliers, Itinéraires. “Charlemagne's Talisman at the Palais Du Tau, Reims.” The French Jewelry Post by Sandrine Merle, 9 May 2017, www.thefrenchjewelrypost.com/en/it-joailliers/talisman-de-charlemagne-palais-tau/.

Unknown. “The Talisman of Charlemagne.” L'École Des Arts Joailliers, 31 Mar. 2016, www.lecolevancleefarpels.com/en/video/talisman-charlemagne.

The Ulfberht

When we think of Viking warriors, we usually think of warriors with odd helmets armed with large long swords. While this isn't completely incorrect, its not entirely accurate either. Vikings didn't wear horned helmets, nor did they all use large swords. Most Vikings were armed with axes or long spears. To have a sword was a sign of wealth and strength. 



To own a sword with the brand name "Ulfberht" was to own one of the finest weapons that could be made. These swords were much tougher than your average sword in this time period due to the added carbon. The added carbon not only makes the steel much stronger, but also makes it less brittle. If you were to get this sword stuck in a shield, it would be less likely to break.This is thanks to the added flexibility.With all these added properties the "Ulfberht" swords were more rare and expensive than their average counterparts.

Works Cited 

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/mar/03/viking-world-british-museum-neil-macgregor-exhibition

https://www.realmofhistory.com/2016/03/08/ulfberht-swords-advanced-viking-weapons/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/secrets-viking-sword.html

An Age-Old Curse

When it comes to Viking culture, one of the most distinct elements is the runic alphabet that they used to tell stories of their people, record their beliefs, and in this case, threaten curses upon people.

The Glavendrup Stone, which is a large runestone that dates back to the early 10th century (the middle of the Viking age), resides in Funen, Denmark. It stands at the end of a stone ship, which is a burial site where—as the name suggests—various stones are placed to form the shape of a ship. Nine graves have been found within the stone ship, all of which are empty.

Discovered in 1794, the Glavendrup Stone is the second largest text on a runic stone in Denmark at 210 characters long. The text translates to: 

Ragnhild placed this stone in memory of Alle, priest of the Soelve, honorable clan chieftain. Alle's sons made these runes after their father and his wife after her husband. And Sote carved these runes in memory of his master. Thor hallow these runes. To a "something you do not want to become" become he who uses violence on this stone or drags it away to stand in memory of somebody else.

There is some debate concerning the translation of one of the words (i.e "something you do not want to become"), but it is believed to be along the lines of "warlock," "wretch," and "outcast"—the bottom line being Thor will not be very happy with you if you vandalize the Glavendrup Stone. 

Works Cited

• “Glavendrup Stone Ship And Runic Stone.” Viking Denmark, 1 Jan. 2008, www.vikingdenmark.com/glavendrup-stone-ship-runic-stone-funen-denmark.html.
• “Rune Stones.” National Museum of Denmark, en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/power-and-aristocracy/rune-stones/.

Vikings Don't Really Train Dragons...Right?

Contrary to its title, the DreamWorks animated movie How to Train Your Dragon is not just about dragons. The film follows the life of a young boy, Hiccup, who just does not fit in when it comes to his family, his village, and even his culture. He feels like an outsider, which is something that could be frowned upon considering Hiccup is...well, a Viking.

Known throughout history as ruthless, barbaric warriors, Vikings "were canny traders as well as cruel raiders" they were "the most fearsome invaders of all" (Bennett). These groups of invaders were spotted along the English Channel, on the continent, the North Atlantic, and the Russian States. But Vikings we actually a very intelligent bunch. Thanks to their extensive knowledge in geography and on the surrounding kingdoms, "strong trade networks helped Vikings know where and when to attack. Raiding, in turn, promoted more trade, as Viking would sell in one place what they had plundered in another" (Bennett). While not the most moral of actions, it's hard to argue that the Vikings weren't unaware of what they were doing when it came to money.

This movie, in particular, may not wholly focus on the factual life of Vikings but instead what their life would be like if they coexisted with dragons. From the beginning, we see the animosity between the village and the dragon species. The Vikings in this movie are seen with traditional clothing such as furs, leathers, and cloths. Even shown are the infamous the horned Viking helmets we all know and love. The characters (execpt for a select few for some reason) all have a heavy Scandinavian accent and wear braids in their hair, ranging from short to long hairstyles. They are also big and burley people--at least a majority of the characters are.

As mentioned before, Hiccup is seen as an outsider. Because he is small, skinny, and does not think of dragons as a nuisance like the rest of the village, he does not fit in. Most importantly, because he does not want to fight and kill, he is seen as weak. Yes, the Vikings are notorious for their violence, but that is not the only defining trait they have. But we see Hiccup can be strong in his own. He eventually learns to stand up for himself and gets the whole village on his side to fight with the dragons to defeat an even bigger threat.

Although this movie may not be the best one to accurately represent how Vikings lived, there are still many characteristics that are consistent with the records shown throughout history such as hairstyles, clothing, and an interest in fighting. Of course, the animated film was "Disney-fied" so many aspects were made for and aimed towards children. All in all, How to Train Your Dragon is a movie that can set the bare, child-proof basics of how Vikings lived back then. And... dragons are a good plot device in a children's movie, too.


Works Cited:

How to Train Your Dragon (2010) DreamWorks

Bennett, Judith M. Medieval Europe: A Short History. McGraw-Hill, 2011.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/03/vikings-ship-burials-battle-reenactor/