Beowulf: Fated Death and Illusive Glory

The 2007 film adaptation of Beowulf by Robert Zemeckis is unfortunately inaccurate to the epic poem as well as being strewn with inaccuracies about the middle ages. While some details are accurate, such as funeral pyres and clothing style, these details only serve to legitimize a modern story told through an 8^th-11^th century poem. These conflicting time periods are evident in the characters, who are depicted to be almost as flawed as the monsters themselves. Beowulf, a character renowned for bravery and courage, is retold to be a weak man, only fighting in an attempt to gain false glory. (Beowulf also has a difficult time remaining clothed—he struggles with this throughout the film.) What some reviews of this movie miss, however, is that this movie was not intended to be a pure retelling of the story. The movie is meant to tell the history behind the epic poem itself. While this film would be a horrible way to study for a quiz on Beowulf, it does refer to fascinating Anglo-Saxon concepts of immortalizing glory and virtuous leadership. The film Beowulf is not an accurate or reliable resource for understanding the early middle ages, but it does draw attention to an enthralling work of literature that has captivated numerous readers for centuries.

Before addressing these concepts, both versions of Beowulf, the historical and the bastardized, must be examined. The epic poem Beowulf is divided into three acts. In the first act, Beowulf sails to help the Danes defeat the monster Grendel, who he attacks. Beowulf rips the arm from the man-eating monster. The second act begins as Grendel’s mother attacks to avenge her son, but Beowulf is able to defeat her. In the third act, when he is an old and powerful king, Beowulf fights against a gold-mongering dragon who terrorizes the land. He kills the dragon but dies as a result of the battle. The text examines what it means to be a good warrior/leader, as well as how to obtain immortality from glory. 

The movie, while containing the same three monsters, diverges from the original plot early in the story. After Grendel attacks the Danes, Beowulf sails to their assistance. He fights Grendel, breaking the monster’s arm off. After Grendel’s mother kills more men out of vengeance, Beowulf travels to her lair to kill her, but is instead seduced by her as she had taken on the form of a beautiful, naked woman, complete with high-heels. He is promised fame and power, and he succumbs to her wiles. Years later, Beowulf is weary of the world. He still struggles to keep his clothes on. The dragon terrorizing his people is none other than his bastard son. He fights and kills the dragon, but dies in the end. Through this chaotic narrative, the writers examine what it means to be human, flawed and as capable of monstrous acts as the monsters themselves.

            While the characters share the same names, the textual Beowulf is quite different from the Beowulf in the movie. Why does the movie fail to capture the original story of Beowulf? The movie removes any possibility of Hrothgar and Beowulf being considered virtuous. “The central problem is that instead of presenting Hrothgar and Beowulf as great heroes, which is exactly who they are in the poem, the film offers us two decidedly unheroic liars. Both men achieve their worldly success not by killing monsters but by having sex with Mother and then lying about it” (Larsen). In the movie, the hero is simply the toughest man in the room. Or, to be more accurate, the first to make a deal with a demon in order to gain power. However, the epic poem established that you need more than that in order to be a true leader:

Thus Beowulf bore himself with valour; / he was formidable in battle yet behaved with honour / and took no advantage; never cut down / a comrade who was drunk, kept his temper / and, warrior that he was, watched and controlled / his God-send strength and his outstanding / natural powers. (lines 2177-2180)

The movie places emphasis on the physical attributes—strength and beauty, but it does not address the virtues of a good leader that were present throughout Beowulf. Beowulf proves himself to be a good king in the third act, but he gained the title through his heroic actions. The movie implies that people were, more often than not, unable to be virtuous. This is especially seen in Hrothgar, a wise and noble king in the book, who is portrayed as a fat, undesirable man who slept with a monster to gain his power and respect. This lack of consciousness was not true, as detailed Germanic laws, such as the Burgundian Code, provide evidence for a society that created laws to prevent or temper debauchery and war. The movie presents a different story, depicting people from the early middle ages as being morally weak, but the poem provides historical evidence that virtuous traits were desired and admired in leaders.

As shown in the movie, Beowulf would
have worn chain-mail for protection.
Even if warriors accepted the inevitability
 of death they would still take precautions.

            While their methods of securing glory were different, both versions of Beowulf were interested in glory in order to be remembered after death. Life wasn’t just about accumulating worldly goods, but to gain enough respect to be remembered. In his first scene in the movie, Beowulf declares, “If we die, it will be for glory not for gold.” He is risking death for illusive glory. In the poem, the Geats and Danes alike understood the fragility of life and the inevitability of death. Fate is a concept seen throughout the poem, interwoven with references to God. (The combination of Fate and God is especially interesting as it may possibly be evidence of the assimilation of Christianity into the Anglo-Saxon culture.) Despite knowing that fate could claim your life at any moment, the characters in the story were motivated to live heroically and dangerously. Some would distract themselves with gold and women, but the fear of being forgotten by time was strong. Both versions of Beowulf desired to be remembered, and yet the cinematic Beowulf sacrifices his honor and loyalty in order for the same remembrance that the poetic Beowulf gained by remaining steadfast in his values. Because he held onto his values in the text, Beowulf earned his title as a king, and when his death was drawing near he accepted his fate:

He wished good luck to the Geats who had shared / his hearth and his gold. He was sad at heart, / unsettled yet ready, sensing his death. / He fate hovered near, unknowable but certain: / it would soon claim his coffered soul, / part life from limb, (lines 2418-2423)

The poem allows insight into early medieval perceptions of death and fate. The warriors were keen on gaining glory because their lives were especially short. The movie addresses this, but the characters secure their glory by sacrificing their morals. Undoubtedly, kings could just gain “glory” by inciting bloody wars and murdering kin such as the Merovingian king Clovis who “adopted the straightforward policy of murdering all possible rivals” (Bennett 37), but Beowulf seems to have been written to inspire leaders and warriors to act justly and with wisdom.  

Having never seen the movie before now, I had high expectations from reading Beowulf. I didn’t expect the movie to be overly accurate as the story itself contains sea-monsters and demons, but the final product feels far removed from Beowulf. Musings on virtuous leadership and glory, which demonstrate early chivalric virtues, give insight into the character and ethics of the early middle ages and yet the movie ignores these in favor of analyzing modern character and thought. The movie altered the story to serve as a vehicle for its own message. The pensive and often dark tone of Beowulf is left behind as the movie sensationalizes the characters in order to draw more audiences. The actual story and lessons of Beowulf are lost, causing modern understanding of this time period to become corrupted or entirely replaced by this inaccurate representation. While interesting in raising questions about human nature, the film is not a good resource for learning medieval values of leadership and glory. The historical details that are mixed into this modern story are used to sell the story instead of informing it, which allows for escapism instead of actual understanding of this dynamic period of time reflected through Beowulf. The 2007 Beowulf adaption is not a good resource, but does urge us to return to the historical version which is useful for understanding the early middle ages.

Works Cited

Bennett, Judith. Medieval Europe: A Short History. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Beowulf. Directed by Robert Zemeckis. Performances by Ray Winstone, Anthony Hopkins, and Angelina Jolie. Warner Bros. Pictures, 2007

Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000.

Larsen, Andrew. “Beowulf: Shame on You, Neil Gaiman.” An Historian Goes to the Movies: Exploring History on the Screen, 09/11/2015, https://aelarsen.wordpress.com/category/beowulf/

The Eagle - Blood and Steel With Shreds of History

            The Eagle (2011) is a film set in the year 140 CE on the island of Britain.  It follows the story of a Roman centurion by the name of Marcus Flavius Aquila.  Marcus’ father was the commander of the 9^th legion who 20 years prior to this movie marched 5000 men into the unconquered territory in northern Britain.  During this incursion the 9^th legion vanished along with their standard, the golden eagle.  The Aquila family has been shamed because of the loss of the eagle and Marcus must fight with this fact as he takes his first command.  Eventually Marcus hears rumors that one of the northern tribes holds the eagle and he along with his slave Esca set out to try to retrieve it and regain his families honor. 

            This movie is not a go to movie for teaching about the Middle ages.  It is a movie about one man’s struggle to regain his families honor as a soldier.  It does hold some historic significance in teaching about Roman military.  For the most part this is an action movie with little bits of history sprinkled in.  The thing it shows best is the strained relationship between the Romans and the natives of Britain.  In all it is a very entertaining and good movie that has bits of history sprinkled in but relaying history is not the main purpose. 

            The first problem this story runs into is in the preface.  The movie states that Marcus’ father was sent into the unconquered lands of northern Britain where they vanished.  According to the movie “Shamed by this great loss, the Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of a giant wall to cut off the north of Britain forever.  Hadrian’s Wall marked the end of the known world” (2:07).  According to historians at History.com this is wrong.  They state that “by the time Emperor Hadrian came to power in 117 A.D., the Romans no longer sought to expand their territory.  Instead, they wanted to protect what they had – from the Caledonians and others” (History.com Editors).  Also, that the wall was built by Roman governors to protect their territory from the barbarians of the north.  Not because some legion was lost along with their standard.  According to Judith Bennett "barbarians lurked threateningly on the borders of the empire; Roman troops made and unmade emperors so often that (to exaggerate only slightly) a man might be a general one day, emperor the next, and dead the third..." (Bennett, 8).  This is both seen and mentioned early on in the film.  It is mentioned when Marcus tells his second in command to send out a patrol to discover what has happened to the food delivery.  His second tries to advise him not to stating that there have been sightings of a druid about.  The threat the barbarians posed is seen soon after.  Marcus wakes up during the night just before a raid launched by the barbarians.  

           According to Joshua J. Mark, an editor and director of the Ancient History Encyclopedia, the movie is correct in just how important the standard was to the Roman military.  He states “So important was the Standard to the armies of Rome that battles were fought for their return… The Standard, then, represented not only the legion or cohort which carried it but the citizens of Rome, and the policies the army represented” (Mark).  This meant to lose one of these standards was to lose a piece of Rome. 

            The bits of history that this movie focuses on are Roman military practices and beliefs.  It does a great job depicting Roman fighting stiles and the importance of their standards to them.  As well as showing their armor and equipment.  However, it does bend some facts to make the story more exciting and important than it really was.  

Bennett, Judith M. Medieval Europe: a Short History. 11th ed., Langara College, 2016.

History.com Editors. “Hadrian's Wall.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 19 Jan.          2018, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-rome/hadrians-wall.

Mark, Joshua J. “Roman Standard.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2 Sept. 2019, https://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Standard/.

The Return of Martin Guerre: Love and Agency in 16th Century France

In 1548 Martin Guerre, a disgruntled, well-off peasant in the rural reaches of Languedoc, France, fled his village of Artigat, leaving his wife, son, and property behind without a trace. Eight years later, Guerre suddenly returns a new man -- loving, charismatic, and vigorous. Bertrande de Rols, once the subject of Guerre's frequent scorn and disregard, finds herself in marital bliss as her recently-returned husband treats her with previously unfounded respect and dignity -- though not all is how it seems. Three years after his return, a rumor begins to spread: Martin Guerre is an impostor. Championed by his uncle Pierre, these rumors claim that Arnaud du Tihl, also known as Pansette, stole the identity of the real Martin Guerre. High jinks ensue, ultimately leading a climactic trial during which the real Martin Guerre, now missing a leg from the Hundred Years' War, arrives to reclaim his name. Oddly enough, this film is based on the legal records of Jean de Coras, a member of the Toulouse Parliament and judge on Guerre's historical case.

Daniel Vigne's Le Retour de Martin Guerre (1982) is a suspenseful film rooted in the daily life of society's most forgotten people: the peasants. The film features neither a grandiose battle of heroic chivalry nor a classic tale of good versus evil; instead, it's an intimate showing of love and identity in the Middle Ages. Much to the film's credit, production overseen by acclaimed historian Natalie Zemon Davis who ensured, at the very least, the semblance of historical accuracy. Davis left the film unsatisfied with Vigne's dedication to history, writing The Return of Martin Guerre as proper analysis of the legal records, though her influence was not wholly lost on the film. 

Peasant Wedding (1567)

The film begins in a modest church of stone, lit only by candlelight, and lacking the comfort of pews. In the church commences the marriage of Martin and Bertrande -- a rather solemn ceremony marked by its presumably arranged nature, evidenced by the age of the bride and groom (around 14) and the extensive dowry cited after the marriage. Bertrande's dowry included money, a vineyard, a bed with a linen cloth and feathered pillows, and other such valuables -- each evidence of a society with a pseudo-middle class, even in rural areas, and not one of absolute poverty for those not of noble birth. After the ceremony, a celebration, quite similar to Pieter Bruegel's Peasant Wedding, began. Men clad in coifs and women in headdresses enjoyed the festivals of marriage: drinking, playing, and eating together in the home of the Guerre patriarch. Here begins one of the great discrepancy with history found in Martin Guerre, the omission of the Basque culture. Martin and his family immigrated to Artigat from the Basque County between France and Spain -- a land with unique social customs sacrificed in the film. One such custom, which was included in the film, involves the eldest male, the only heir under the Basque tradition, and his wife living in the same home as his father. While the inclusion of such a detail is great, the failure to contextualize the custom ignores the nuances of culture and muddles historical truth, as the Basque tradition now appears standard. 

One of the film's more striking sequences features a balance of pagan and Christian culture. Martin and Bertrande, bewitched by Martin's impotence, become the subjects of humiliation after their failure to consummate the marriage. Witchcraft is believed to be the source of their troubles, as Bertrande believes a sorceress jealous of the Guerre and Rols alliance to be behind the plot of their social demise. Seeking a cure, the couple tries various methods, with the most absurd being the pagan charivari. Dressed in the pelt of a bear, Martin is chased through the village by men clad in pine and women's clothes, beating sticks, ringing bells, and flailing tools. It is a humiliating ordeal, only furthered by Martin's capture in which the bear's false testicles are removed in a symbol jab at Martin's impotence. This spectacle is rooted in pagan tradition as a means to scare off evil spirits from newlyweds by using rough or loud noises, and though it may not have succeeded, the charivari demonstrates the more amusing aspects of medieval life often forgotten by the public. 

In addition to the charivari, Martin and Bertrande meet with a village elder to seek a cure. The tradition of consulting a local wise woman was prevalent in the region of Artigat, and although she did not cure the couple, she instructed that four masses must be held to help consummate the marriage. Shortly thereafter, Bertrande was pregnant, though not without a long journey through regional, pagan, and Christian traditions. With the help of Davis, Vigne guides the audience through a culture not entirely under a Christian hegemony; rather, the audience is presented a nuanced society with variant foundations. 

Le Retour de Martin Guerre trades the sprawling battlefields of historical epics for the intimate confines of the medieval village. Under the guidance of Davis, the film features an accurate representation of daily life. The village center is bustling with simple trade as children play in the streets; peasant laborers of all ages and genders toil in the fields, swinging fails and tilling the fields with plows; and life is marked by familial obligations and lineage. Despite all the traits of an authentic medieval society, Martin Guerre diverges from traditional storytelling, presenting Arnaud and Bertrande as co-conspirators. Although ambiguous in the film, the idea of Bertrande being complicit in Arnaud's identity theft was proposed by Davis herself, citing the rising tide of Protestantism in rural France -- a detail omitted in the film -- as support. The film's lack of Protestant themes is ultimately a hindrance, as it removes a fundamental principle by which many of the characters historically operated. 

While not without its issues, Le Retour de Martin Guerre is a well-crafted journey into the nuanced identity of a medieval peasant. If you enjoy tales of suspense, love, and courtroom drama, this is an enjoyable film which proves that the truth can be stranger than fiction.

Works Cited:

Davis, Natalie Zemon. The Return of Martin Guerre. Harvard University Press, 1983.
Vigne, Daniel, director. Le Retour de Martin Guerre. European International, 1982.

 

The Seventh Seal: Disease, Religion, and Fear

Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal is regarded as one of the most iconic movies of all time. Released in 1957, it is filmed in black-and-white and follows the story of Antonius Block, a Swedish Crusader who returns to Europe in the throes of the Great Plague. Death follows him - quite literally - and to keep his life, Block must win a chess match against him.

The Crusades ended decades before the plague hit Europe in 1347, concluding in the eleventh century. Block's role as a crusading knight ties together two well-known themes of the medieval period, providing an easily understandable storytelling method if one that is not entirely accurate.

Toward the beginning, two people have a conversation in a church. One is painting the walls and the other a commission of Block's squire, Jons. The artists talk about the wall painting and the effects of the plague on society. It is clear that the disease is causing shockwaves, and the artist reveals that he is painting the danse macabre, which becomes a crucial element as the story progresses.

All in all, the movie showed very little of the plague itself. Toward the end of the film, a plague victim stumbles toward the group, begging for water. Jons stops the mute girl from giving him any from their canteen, telling her again and again that "it's useless." The victim dies a few moments later, but not before screaming at them, "do I not deserve compassion?" This scene shows the plague as vicious, striking quickly and killing fast. Bennett quotes a chronicle from Siena as "father abandoned child; wife, husband... no one could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship." Bergman captures the terror of the plague much in the way that those who lived through it did.

Perhaps one of the most striking scenes is that of the flagellants and monks holding a procession through the town after a performance by the characters of the fools. Although flagellants existed as a response to the Black Death, they were frowned upon by most of society and were not condoned by the rest of the church. It was more common for the church to host processions of their officials and encourage citizens to pray and attend services more frequently. A priest delivers a message that frightens the crowd as well: they are all destined to die for the sins that brought about the plague. Belief that the disease was divine punishment from God was very real among common people and chroniclers alike.

The movie concludes with Death leading the characters in the danse macabre across the open hills as the fool and his family escape. Characters at the beginning painted the same scene on the walls of a castle, leaving the scene with the dual purpose of bringing the story full-circle and alluding to the infamous artistic motif of the late Middle Ages. The dance is part of memento mori; the mindset that everyone dies in the end. People in the Middle Ages were frightened of death but found solace in that they would be reunited with God once they passed. The characters themselves represent various figures in the danse - the fool, the knight, the maid, etc. In the end, Block was foolish to try and outsmart Death.

Much like the Middle Ages, the 1950s were a time of turmoil. Bergman created Seal barely a decade past the end of World War II when the world grappled with the effects and recovery. Block's monologues on his doubts about religion and his desperation to believe in God for fear of what will happen to him if he does not reflect less of the thirteenth century's memento mori and more of contemporary confliction in a war-torn era.

If you have spare time, I highly recommend The Seventh Seal. It holds fairly close to medieval customs and ideas about the Black Death and guards its title as a classic jealously. If you're less keen on the historical aspects, Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey delivers even more board games with Death (and fewer Swedish subtitles).

Works Cited

Bennett, Judith. Medieval Europe. New York, 2011.

Aberth, John. From the Brink of the Apocalypse. Routledge, 2001.

Strata Florida Abbey; The Valley of Flowers

In the rural part of Central Wales, near the small village of Pontrhydfendigaid (no clue on how to pronounce this) lies the ruins of an medieval church. In English the Abbey was known by the name "Strata Florida", in welsh it was called Ystrad Fflw or the Valley of Flowers. Despite its name a long history of violence marred this location and defiled the sacred purpose of the Abbey. Although it is unassuming at first glance the ruins of this Cistercian Abbey mark the spot where enormous changes and upheavals happened in British History not limited to the Glyndŵr rising and the chaos of the Protestant Reformation.

Strata Florida was founded by Cistercian Monks in the year 1164 CE, the Abbey's chapel was consecrated much later in the year 1204. The Cistercian Monks at Strata Florida eventually became quite wealthy and influential Ystrad Fflw had arguably become the cultural center of medieval Wales. Among the great works that were produced here were the Brut y Tywysogion (one of the first chronicles of Welsh History written in the Welsh Language) and the ballad of Mabinogion. One of the foremost poets of the middle ages, Dafydd ap Gwilym was known to have lived and compiled his works inside Strata Florida. Strata Florida was so important in the political and cultural spheres of Wales that the Welsh princes, including the famous Llywelyn the Great often held council there to decide the major political issues of the day.

Unfortunately the prosperity and influence of the Cistercian Monastery began to decline following the English conquest of Wales in 1277 CE. Perhaps this is representative of the decline of Welsh culture in general, the confiscation of Welsh lands under English nobles styled "Marcher-Lords" marks the beginning of the gradual Anglicization of Wales. This period marks the beginning of the troubles that the Cistercian Monks of Strata Florida faced during the tail-end of the Middle Ages.

                                                   A 16th century portrait of Henry IV

During the Welsh war of Independence the problems faced by the Abbey grew worse. In 1401 the English King Henry IV and his son lead an army in pillaging Strata Florida, after the monks there were found to be sympathetic to the Welsh rebel leader, Owain Glyndŵr. Following this incident the monks were expelled from the Abbey. Strata Florida was used as an English military base for the remainder of the war. In 1415 following English victory in the Glyndŵr rising the Abbey was returned to the Cistercian Order, though the monks would never truly recover from the devastation incurred upon them during the conflict.

                                                                        Henry VIII


The protestant reformation and the rise of Anglicanism in England would mark the final death of Strata Florida. In the 1540's Henry VIII the founder of Anglicanism assumed direct control over religion in England. As a consequence of this many monasteries including Strata Florida Abbey were plundered and destroyed by English Soldiers, often being converted into manor houses for use of the nobility.

                                                                         Sources: 

        http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/waleshistory/2012/07/strata_florida_abbey.html
        
        http://strataflorida.org.uk/

        https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofWales/The-English-conquest-of-Wales/

                                                                    

Are You Worth Your Salt?

In Roman times, salt was highly prized and if one was said to be not "worth their salt," it was considered a high insult. It is also regarded as the first traded commodity (Salt Assocation). Salt was no less valuable in the Middle Ages and contributed to status as well as food preservation.

The mineral was not mined, but obtained through evaporating brine and seawater. Lead salt pans were used for this purpose but would be replaced with iron versions in the eighteenth century. Originally designed in the Roman era, salt pans of the Middle Ages were slightly smaller than the Classical standard and did not have any inscriptions or embellishment on them. Pans were left in the sun and would leave behind salt as the water evaporated. There was money to be made in salt production and "wiches" - saltworks - sprung up throughout England to get into the industry.


Domesday Book records of the salt industry in England are more in-depth than those of any other type of production, demonstrating just how valuable it was (Hull). Worcestershire and Cheshire were two of the largest saltworks cities, followed by Sussex on the southern coast. Middlewich, Nantwich, and Northwich were the major saltworks of Cheshire. Salt was a local affair and the cost of importing it to other cities was great. London later formed its Fraternity of Salters to produce it themselves as only the wealthy could afford it when brought in from other towns.

These saltworks received support from the king and in return were to pay shares of their product to him. Droitwich, a saltworks in Worcestershire, had 300 measures of salt paid to the king by three salt-workers according to the Domesday account. Henry II's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine also opened trade between England and France, providing a new market for Biscay salt from the Continent, although it probably did little to reduce the prices attached to it.

The famine that struck Europe in 1315 saw the amount of salt available to the population drop because of a reduced amount of sunlight. Intense rain decreased crop populations and blotted out the sun, making it difficult to dry out salt from seawater. As availability decreased, it made it harder to preserve meats which resulted in even greater food shortage.






Works Cited

"Lead Salt Pans." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/roman-times/lead-salt-pans/.

"Life in Towns and Villages." National Archives. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/world-of-domesday/towns.htm.

Newman, Paul. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland and Company, 2001.

"Roman Times." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/roman-times/.

"Normans and Late Medieval." Salt Association. https://www.saltassociation.co.uk/education/salt-history/normans-late-medieval/.

"Salt-works." Hull Domesday Project. http://www.domesdaybook.net/domesday-book/structure-of-domesday-book/salt-works.

"Using Salt in the Middle Ages." Medievalists.net. http://www.medievalists.net/2016/01/using-salt-in-the-middle-ages/.